When my discussion with Pascal turned into the unification of the German Nation and its emergence of the new European super power, how Otto von Bismarck played diplomacy and statesmanship surprised us.
Bismarck took advantage of his great skills in the field of diplomacy and led two wars which turned Prussia into the most powerful state among other states of the German Confederation and a major power in Europe. He ultimately made the German Nation an European super power by the unification of various states in to a single entity.
At the very early stage in his career, he opposed the unification of Germany, arguing that Prussia would lose its independence in the process. He accepted his appointment as one of Prussia's representatives at the Erfurt Parliament, an assembly of German states that met to discuss plans for union, but only in order to oppose that body's proposals more effectively. The Parliament, in any event, failed to bring about unification, for it lacked the support of the two most important German states, Prussia and Austria.
In 1852, Friedrich Wilhelm appointed Bismarck as Prussia's envoy to the Diet of the German Confederation in Frankfurt. His eight years in Frankfurt were marked by changes in his political opinions. No longer under the influence of his ultraconservative Prussian friends, Bismarck became less reactionary and more moderate. He became convinced that Prussia would have to ally itself with other German states in order to countervail Austria's growing influence. Thus, he grew more accepting of the notion of a united German nation.
Shortly after he served as the Prussian envoy in Frankfurt he had undertaken an ambassadorial position to Russia. While Bismarck was promoted, Helmuth von Moltke and Albrecht von Roon were appointed as the new Chief of Staff for the Prussian army and the Prussian Minister of War respectively and these three men over the next 12 years transformed the German Nation by unifying it into a powerful nation of Europe.
Before unification, the German Nation consisted of a multitude of principalities loosely bound together as members of the German Confederation. The Germanic Confederation of 39 states which was created from the previous 300 was under the heavy influence of Austria and its emperor as the president of the Confederation. Only portions of the territory of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation.
Showing posts with label Bismarck. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Bismarck. Show all posts
Sunday, December 23, 2007
Saturday, December 22, 2007
German Memoirs in Asia - Austria & Divided German States
Andrea was narrating various issues about Austria. When I asked Andrea how most of the Austrians identify themselves as Austrians or Germans, she said, "there are complex issues. We have a unique culture in Austria. So we feel comfortable when we identify ourselves as Austrians". She also said, "We are less in number compared to those who are in Germany and that is the primary reason why we like to identify ourselves as Austrians".
That the German Nation and its people should be divided was a notion held by many European nations. Foreign powers had long interceded in German affairs, pitting one German principality against the other.
In the 19th century, after the Napoleonic Wars and the fall of the Holy Roman Empire (of the German nation), Austria and Prussia emerged as two opposite poles in Germany, trying to re-establish the divided German nation. In 1870, Prussia attracted even Bavaria in the Franco-Prussian War and the creation of the German Empire as a German nation-state, effectively excluding the multi-ethnic Austrian-Habsburg monarchy. From this time on, the connotation of Germans came to shift gradually from "speakers of the German language" to "Imperial Germans."
The dissolution of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire after World War I led to a strong desire of the population of the new Republic of Austria to be integrated into Germany. This was, however, prevented by the Treaty of Versailles.
Trying to overcome the shortfall of Chancellor Bismarck's creation, the Nazis attempted to unite "all Germans" in one realm. This was welcomed among ethnic Germans in Czechoslovakia, Austria, Poland, Danzig and Western Lithuania, but met with resistance among the Swiss and the Dutch, who were perfectly content with their perception of separate nations established in 1648, and the Dutch, in particular as they had never even spoken a form of the modern Germanic language.
Before World War II, most Austrians considered themselves German and denied the existence of a distinct Austrian ethnic identity. It was only after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II that this began to change. After the world war, the Austrians increasingly saw themselves as a nation distinct from the other German-speaking areas of Europe, and some polls in 2000 indicated that no more than ten percent of the German-speaking Austrians saw themselves as part of a larger German nation linked by blood or language.
Germans, would hold that they belong to the German culture, which is what decides if someone is considered a German or not. On the other hand, Austrians often prefer to see the same persons and institutions as Austrian. Particularly, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven - who spent most of their lives in what is Austria today - may be considered to have been central within the German culture but may nevertheless often be characterized as Austrians, not as Germans.
The beginnings of a divided Germany may be traced back much further; to a Roman occupied Germania in the west and to Free Germania in the east. Starkly different ideologies have many times been developed due to conquerors and occupiers of sections of Germany. Poets talked of Zwei Seelen in einem Herz (Two souls in one heart).
That the German Nation and its people should be divided was a notion held by many European nations. Foreign powers had long interceded in German affairs, pitting one German principality against the other.
In the 19th century, after the Napoleonic Wars and the fall of the Holy Roman Empire (of the German nation), Austria and Prussia emerged as two opposite poles in Germany, trying to re-establish the divided German nation. In 1870, Prussia attracted even Bavaria in the Franco-Prussian War and the creation of the German Empire as a German nation-state, effectively excluding the multi-ethnic Austrian-Habsburg monarchy. From this time on, the connotation of Germans came to shift gradually from "speakers of the German language" to "Imperial Germans."
The dissolution of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire after World War I led to a strong desire of the population of the new Republic of Austria to be integrated into Germany. This was, however, prevented by the Treaty of Versailles.
Trying to overcome the shortfall of Chancellor Bismarck's creation, the Nazis attempted to unite "all Germans" in one realm. This was welcomed among ethnic Germans in Czechoslovakia, Austria, Poland, Danzig and Western Lithuania, but met with resistance among the Swiss and the Dutch, who were perfectly content with their perception of separate nations established in 1648, and the Dutch, in particular as they had never even spoken a form of the modern Germanic language.
Before World War II, most Austrians considered themselves German and denied the existence of a distinct Austrian ethnic identity. It was only after the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II that this began to change. After the world war, the Austrians increasingly saw themselves as a nation distinct from the other German-speaking areas of Europe, and some polls in 2000 indicated that no more than ten percent of the German-speaking Austrians saw themselves as part of a larger German nation linked by blood or language.
Germans, would hold that they belong to the German culture, which is what decides if someone is considered a German or not. On the other hand, Austrians often prefer to see the same persons and institutions as Austrian. Particularly, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven - who spent most of their lives in what is Austria today - may be considered to have been central within the German culture but may nevertheless often be characterized as Austrians, not as Germans.
The beginnings of a divided Germany may be traced back much further; to a Roman occupied Germania in the west and to Free Germania in the east. Starkly different ideologies have many times been developed due to conquerors and occupiers of sections of Germany. Poets talked of Zwei Seelen in einem Herz (Two souls in one heart).
German Memories - Crisis With Denmark and Austria - Otto Von Bismarck's Diplomacy
Bismarck faced a diplomatic crisis in November 1863 over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein; they were claimed by Denmark and by Frederick von Augustenburg, a German duke. Prussian public opinion strongly favoured Augustenburg's claim; however, Bismarck took an unpopular step by insisting that the territories legally belonged to the Danish monarch under the London Protocols signed a decade earlier. Nonetheless, Bismarck did denounce Danish decision to annex the duchy of Schleswig to Denmark.
With support from Austria, he issued an ultimatum for Denmark to return Schleswig to its former status; when the Danes refused, Austria and Prussia invaded, commencing the Second War of Schleswig.
As a result of the German victory, Denmark was forced to cede both duchies. Originally, it was proposed that the Diet of the German Confederation where all the states of Germany were represented should determine the fate of these duchies; however, before this scheme could be effected, Bismarck induced Austria to agree to the Gastein Convention. Under this agreement, Prussia received Schleswig, while Holstein went to the Austrians.
In 1866, Austria reneged on its prior agreement with Prussia by demanding that the Diet of the German Confederation determine the Schleswig-Holstein issue. Bismarck used Austria's demand as an excuse; charging that the Austrians had violated the Convention of Gastein and sent the Prussian troops to occupy Holstein. Provoked, Austria called for the aid of other German states, who quickly became involved in the Austro-Prussian War.
With the aid of Albrecht von Roon's army reorganization, the Prussian army was nearly the equal in numbers to the Austrian army. With the organizational genius of Helmuth von Moltke, the Prussian army defeated Austria and its allies, concluding the conflict with a crushing victory at the Battle of Koniggratz. The silent rivalry between Austria and Prussia finally ended up with the Battle on July 3, 1866, with casualties of more than 30,000 soldiers dead and wounded on both sides.
As a result of the Peace of Prague, the German Confederation was dissolved; Prussia annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, and Nassau; and Austria promised not to intervene in German affairs. Austria was excluded, and remained outside of German affairs for most of the remaining 19th and 20th centuries.
Bismarck played a crucial role in uniting most of the German states into a single unit in the absence of Austrian influence.
In his first speech Bismarck referred to the issue of German unification by his famous remark: "the great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and the resolutions of majorities - that was the great mistake from 1848 to 1849 - but by blood and iron." He was referring to the failed Frankfurt Parliament as the great mistakes of 1848 and 1849. Bismarck used both diplomacy and the Prussian military in order to achieve German unification.
To solidify Prussian hegemony, Prussia and several other North German states joined the North German Confederation in 1867; King Wilhelm I served as its President, and Bismarck as its Chancellor.
With support from Austria, he issued an ultimatum for Denmark to return Schleswig to its former status; when the Danes refused, Austria and Prussia invaded, commencing the Second War of Schleswig.
As a result of the German victory, Denmark was forced to cede both duchies. Originally, it was proposed that the Diet of the German Confederation where all the states of Germany were represented should determine the fate of these duchies; however, before this scheme could be effected, Bismarck induced Austria to agree to the Gastein Convention. Under this agreement, Prussia received Schleswig, while Holstein went to the Austrians.
In 1866, Austria reneged on its prior agreement with Prussia by demanding that the Diet of the German Confederation determine the Schleswig-Holstein issue. Bismarck used Austria's demand as an excuse; charging that the Austrians had violated the Convention of Gastein and sent the Prussian troops to occupy Holstein. Provoked, Austria called for the aid of other German states, who quickly became involved in the Austro-Prussian War.
With the aid of Albrecht von Roon's army reorganization, the Prussian army was nearly the equal in numbers to the Austrian army. With the organizational genius of Helmuth von Moltke, the Prussian army defeated Austria and its allies, concluding the conflict with a crushing victory at the Battle of Koniggratz. The silent rivalry between Austria and Prussia finally ended up with the Battle on July 3, 1866, with casualties of more than 30,000 soldiers dead and wounded on both sides.
As a result of the Peace of Prague, the German Confederation was dissolved; Prussia annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, and Nassau; and Austria promised not to intervene in German affairs. Austria was excluded, and remained outside of German affairs for most of the remaining 19th and 20th centuries.
Bismarck played a crucial role in uniting most of the German states into a single unit in the absence of Austrian influence.
In his first speech Bismarck referred to the issue of German unification by his famous remark: "the great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and the resolutions of majorities - that was the great mistake from 1848 to 1849 - but by blood and iron." He was referring to the failed Frankfurt Parliament as the great mistakes of 1848 and 1849. Bismarck used both diplomacy and the Prussian military in order to achieve German unification.
To solidify Prussian hegemony, Prussia and several other North German states joined the North German Confederation in 1867; King Wilhelm I served as its President, and Bismarck as its Chancellor.
German Memories - Kaiser William II & His "Love-Hate" Relationship With Great Britain
The German Empire without Bismarck had started to experience a general lack of coherence and consistency in the foreign policy issues towards other powers. William's "love-hate" relationship with Great Britain and in particular with his British cousins further made chaos in the consistency of foreign policy while the elite had their own agenda and further messed foreign affairs.
William never had in mind an open armed conflict with Britain or never even imagined it, but his general anti-British sentiments, which arose within him from his youth by his own prejudices, reflected among the elite of the German government and created further confusion.
William's prejudices towards Britain made him to believe when war came about in 1914, his late uncle Edward VII trapped him into a diplomatic mess by the British attempts to encircle Germany under the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904 and with Russia in 1907. He was unrealistic about the constitutional set-up in Britain and believed that his late uncle had a say on British foreign policy.
This mental paranoia made him to give importance to personal diplomacy with his British cousins to shape British - German relations where they had no power at all. Through Queen Victoria, William was a first cousin to many of the crowned heads in Europe most notably George V of the United Kingdom and Nicholas II of Russia through his consort, the Empress Alexandra.
Kaiser William II, the first grandchild of Queen Victoria had lasting affection from the British Public as he was at his maternal grandmother's deathbed, holding her in his arms as she passed away. But his immature political and diplomatic blunders spoiled that in the coming years.
William gave importance to his personal appearance and emotions than to his statesmanship. He had a vast collection of uniforms and costumes and used to wear different ones for each occasion, often four or more a day and was treated as a joke, saying that when eating plum pudding the emperor would dress as a British Admiral, the honorary rank he had been awarded by his grandmother in 1889.
William never had in mind an open armed conflict with Britain or never even imagined it, but his general anti-British sentiments, which arose within him from his youth by his own prejudices, reflected among the elite of the German government and created further confusion.
William's prejudices towards Britain made him to believe when war came about in 1914, his late uncle Edward VII trapped him into a diplomatic mess by the British attempts to encircle Germany under the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904 and with Russia in 1907. He was unrealistic about the constitutional set-up in Britain and believed that his late uncle had a say on British foreign policy.
This mental paranoia made him to give importance to personal diplomacy with his British cousins to shape British - German relations where they had no power at all. Through Queen Victoria, William was a first cousin to many of the crowned heads in Europe most notably George V of the United Kingdom and Nicholas II of Russia through his consort, the Empress Alexandra.
Kaiser William II, the first grandchild of Queen Victoria had lasting affection from the British Public as he was at his maternal grandmother's deathbed, holding her in his arms as she passed away. But his immature political and diplomatic blunders spoiled that in the coming years.
William gave importance to his personal appearance and emotions than to his statesmanship. He had a vast collection of uniforms and costumes and used to wear different ones for each occasion, often four or more a day and was treated as a joke, saying that when eating plum pudding the emperor would dress as a British Admiral, the honorary rank he had been awarded by his grandmother in 1889.
German Memories - German Colonies in Africa
The German colonial empire penetrated Africa as well. Namibia in the southern coast of Africa was a well known one. A German trader Adolf Luderitz bought some area from a local chief in 1883 what would become the southern coast of Namibia and founded the city of Luderitz.
After the German government annexed the territory with it and named it South-West Africa. Thereafter a number of Germans migrated as soldiers, traders, diamond miners and colonial officials. During World War I Germany lost South West Africa and it became a South African mandate. German-Namibians who descended from the ethnic German colonists are today an influential community in business, farming and tourism and Government sectors.
But the German colony Wituland was a rarity among other short-lived German colonies of Namibia, Togo, Cameroon, Tanzania where colonial rule was harsh. In the short-lived Wituland the local population rioted against the Germans because they were leaving in 1890.
Wituland, located just inland from Indian Ocean port of Lamu in the today's Kenya was a silent testimony to German colonial expansion in Africa. The Wituland had a long-standing conflict with the powerful Sultan of Zanzibar. The town lived under constant threat from Zanzibar attacks as it was a free haven for slaves fleeing from the island.
Sultan Ahmed of Witu who happened to meet the German Africa explorer Richard Brenner in 1867 expressed his desire for Prussian protection. But Prussia was not interested in African territories as they were unifying Germany and Brenner's request was rejected in Berlin.
But the two German travellers to Witu in 1878, the brothers Clemens and Gustav Denhardt, had more luck as Germany was participating in the scramble for Africa in 1885. Denhardt brothers concluded a treaty with Sultan Ahmed. The brothers' request for German protection for their interests was considered favourably by the famous German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck as he was in the middle of his one and only year of interest in African territories.
Bismarck sent the warship SMS Gneisenau to River Tana where a terrestrial command of 3 officers and 30 soldiers marched 3 days through the bush towards Witu and reached the Wituland and helped to establish the German Protectorate in1885. Clemens Denhardt was solemnly appointed Minister of Home and External Affairs by Sultan Ahmed of Witu in appreciation of his success in achieving German protection. A few German soldiers were stationed in Wituland to establish German sovereignty and protect against Zanzibar attacks.
The Denhardt brothers meanwhile tried to make monetary value out of "their" colony by establishing a company in 1887 in an era where there was a colonial enthusiasm in Germany by raising a fund for their 'German Witu Society' to develop the trade on the protectorate. But their business was a complete failure.
In the meantime Bismarck lost his interest in Africa. Bismarck was concentrating to establish a new a powerful Germany than sharing the colonial benefits in Africa. He was trying from 1889 to improve the German-British relations, which was tarnished by the colonial competitions in African continent by the British goal of a Cape to Cairo Empire and the German's goal of a Central African Empire, uniting Cameroon and German East Africa.
Secret negotiations between Berlin and London were initiated and the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty was arrived at top diplomatic level in 1890. Germany was about to leave its interests in Zanzibar, Uganda and on the Kenyan and Somali coasts. Germany acquired the tiny North Sea island of Heligoland, off the German coast and accessed the Zambezi River through the 'Caprivi Strip' for the German interests in Namibia.
How the German Wituland was established for Bismarck's likes it was abolished according his dislike. German colonial enthusiasts were angry over the treaty and blamed Bismarck's prudence in exchange of Uganda, Witu, and Zanzibar for the tiny Heligoland. But Bismarck's far vision was proved later on when Heligoland was the only new German territory that survived with Germany after the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
In German Wituland, reactions were even stronger than in Germany. They were disappointed enormously by the German Government's announcement that they violated their protection obligations. They rioted against Germans and killed a number of them. The Denhardt brothers narrowly escaped from the angry mob but they later died in Germany out of disappointment and impoverishment.
After the German government annexed the territory with it and named it South-West Africa. Thereafter a number of Germans migrated as soldiers, traders, diamond miners and colonial officials. During World War I Germany lost South West Africa and it became a South African mandate. German-Namibians who descended from the ethnic German colonists are today an influential community in business, farming and tourism and Government sectors.
But the German colony Wituland was a rarity among other short-lived German colonies of Namibia, Togo, Cameroon, Tanzania where colonial rule was harsh. In the short-lived Wituland the local population rioted against the Germans because they were leaving in 1890.
Wituland, located just inland from Indian Ocean port of Lamu in the today's Kenya was a silent testimony to German colonial expansion in Africa. The Wituland had a long-standing conflict with the powerful Sultan of Zanzibar. The town lived under constant threat from Zanzibar attacks as it was a free haven for slaves fleeing from the island.
Sultan Ahmed of Witu who happened to meet the German Africa explorer Richard Brenner in 1867 expressed his desire for Prussian protection. But Prussia was not interested in African territories as they were unifying Germany and Brenner's request was rejected in Berlin.
But the two German travellers to Witu in 1878, the brothers Clemens and Gustav Denhardt, had more luck as Germany was participating in the scramble for Africa in 1885. Denhardt brothers concluded a treaty with Sultan Ahmed. The brothers' request for German protection for their interests was considered favourably by the famous German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck as he was in the middle of his one and only year of interest in African territories.
Bismarck sent the warship SMS Gneisenau to River Tana where a terrestrial command of 3 officers and 30 soldiers marched 3 days through the bush towards Witu and reached the Wituland and helped to establish the German Protectorate in1885. Clemens Denhardt was solemnly appointed Minister of Home and External Affairs by Sultan Ahmed of Witu in appreciation of his success in achieving German protection. A few German soldiers were stationed in Wituland to establish German sovereignty and protect against Zanzibar attacks.
The Denhardt brothers meanwhile tried to make monetary value out of "their" colony by establishing a company in 1887 in an era where there was a colonial enthusiasm in Germany by raising a fund for their 'German Witu Society' to develop the trade on the protectorate. But their business was a complete failure.
In the meantime Bismarck lost his interest in Africa. Bismarck was concentrating to establish a new a powerful Germany than sharing the colonial benefits in Africa. He was trying from 1889 to improve the German-British relations, which was tarnished by the colonial competitions in African continent by the British goal of a Cape to Cairo Empire and the German's goal of a Central African Empire, uniting Cameroon and German East Africa.
Secret negotiations between Berlin and London were initiated and the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty was arrived at top diplomatic level in 1890. Germany was about to leave its interests in Zanzibar, Uganda and on the Kenyan and Somali coasts. Germany acquired the tiny North Sea island of Heligoland, off the German coast and accessed the Zambezi River through the 'Caprivi Strip' for the German interests in Namibia.
How the German Wituland was established for Bismarck's likes it was abolished according his dislike. German colonial enthusiasts were angry over the treaty and blamed Bismarck's prudence in exchange of Uganda, Witu, and Zanzibar for the tiny Heligoland. But Bismarck's far vision was proved later on when Heligoland was the only new German territory that survived with Germany after the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
In German Wituland, reactions were even stronger than in Germany. They were disappointed enormously by the German Government's announcement that they violated their protection obligations. They rioted against Germans and killed a number of them. The Denhardt brothers narrowly escaped from the angry mob but they later died in Germany out of disappointment and impoverishment.
German Memories - The New German Empire and the Lagacy of Otto Von Bismarck
The new German Empire was a federal one: each of its twenty-five constituent states (kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, principalities, and free cities) retained its autonomy. The King of Prussia, as German Emperor didn't have sovereignity over the entirety of Germany but as the first amongst equals. Bismarck was also appointed as the Imperial Chancellor of the German Empire, but retained his Prussian offices including those of Minister-President and Foreign Minister; thus, he held almost complete control of both domestic and foreign policy.
He almost changed the course of the German Nation by his tireless efforts and built it into one of Europe's superpowers. The credit of the German Nation's unification belongs to Bismarck from the collection of separate principalities and Free Cities since the era of Charlemagne. Over thousand years various kings and rulers had tried to unify the German states without success until Bismarck came into the scene and made it into a single country and one of the most powerful nations in Europe.
Bismarck by the realisation of the Austro-Hungarian problems of different nationalities within one state, tried to Germanize the state's national minorities, situated mainly in the borders of the empire, such as the Danes in the North of Germany, the French of Alsace-Lorraine and the Poles in the East of Germany.
Although Bismarck had no personal hate against Poles, his policies concerning them, which were usually motivated by tactical considerations of what was best for Germany and were generally unfavourable to Poles, became a grave burden for German-Polish relations for a long time.
In order to avoid alienating the United Kingdom, he declined to seek a colonial empire or an expansion of the navy. In 1872, he extended the hand of friendship to the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Russia, whose rulers joined Wilhelm I in the League of the Three Emperors. Bismarck also maintained good relations with Italy.
During 1873, Germany, and much of the rest of Europe, had endured the Long Depression since the crash of the Vienna Stock Exchange in 1873. For the first time in Germany since vast industrial development in the 1850's after the 1848-49 revolutions, a downfall had hit the German economy. To aid faltering industries, Bismarck decided to abandon free trade and establish protectionist tariffs and created chaos in the relations with neighbouring European nations.
After Russia's victory over the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, Bismarck helped to negotiate a settlement at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Russia had previously secured great advantages in southeastern Europe when it made peace by ratifying the Treaty of San Stefano. Bismarck and other European leaders, however, opposed the growth of Russian influence, and sought to protect the power of the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Berlin revised the Treaty of San Stefano, reducing the concessions offered to Russia. As a result, Russo-German relations suffered; the Russian Prince Gorchakov denounced Bismarck for compromising his nation's victory. The relationship between Russia and Germany was further weakened by the latter's protectionist policies.
In February 1888, during a Bulgarian crisis, Bismarck addressed the Reichstag on the dangers of a European war. For the first time he dwelt upon the imminent possibility that Germany would be forced to fight on two fronts and he spoke of the peace at the final years of his tenure.
Bismarck's astute, cautious, and pragmatic foreign policies allowed Germany to retain peacefully the powerful position into which he had brought it; maintaining amiable diplomacy with almost all European nations. France, the main exception, was devastated by Bismarck's wars and his harsh subsequent policies towards it and became one of Germany's most bitter enemies in Europe.
During most of his nearly thirty year-long tenure, Bismarck held undisputed control over the government's policies. Bismarck proved himself as one of the most capable European statesmen of the nineteenth century by his clever statesmanship and proved himself as the "Iron Chancellor".
Though he was forced to resign from his office over disputes on domestic policies with Emperor William II, Bismarck left a lasting legacy in Europe and around the world. The German Nation and the Germans around the world remebered him by the creation of numerous statues and memorials around the German cities, towns, and countryside including the famous Bismarck Memorial in Berlin, Bismarck Sea and Bismarck Archipelago in the vicinity of then German colony in New Guinea as well as the City of Bismarck in the US State of North Dakota.
He almost changed the course of the German Nation by his tireless efforts and built it into one of Europe's superpowers. The credit of the German Nation's unification belongs to Bismarck from the collection of separate principalities and Free Cities since the era of Charlemagne. Over thousand years various kings and rulers had tried to unify the German states without success until Bismarck came into the scene and made it into a single country and one of the most powerful nations in Europe.
Bismarck by the realisation of the Austro-Hungarian problems of different nationalities within one state, tried to Germanize the state's national minorities, situated mainly in the borders of the empire, such as the Danes in the North of Germany, the French of Alsace-Lorraine and the Poles in the East of Germany.
Although Bismarck had no personal hate against Poles, his policies concerning them, which were usually motivated by tactical considerations of what was best for Germany and were generally unfavourable to Poles, became a grave burden for German-Polish relations for a long time.
In order to avoid alienating the United Kingdom, he declined to seek a colonial empire or an expansion of the navy. In 1872, he extended the hand of friendship to the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Russia, whose rulers joined Wilhelm I in the League of the Three Emperors. Bismarck also maintained good relations with Italy.
During 1873, Germany, and much of the rest of Europe, had endured the Long Depression since the crash of the Vienna Stock Exchange in 1873. For the first time in Germany since vast industrial development in the 1850's after the 1848-49 revolutions, a downfall had hit the German economy. To aid faltering industries, Bismarck decided to abandon free trade and establish protectionist tariffs and created chaos in the relations with neighbouring European nations.
After Russia's victory over the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, Bismarck helped to negotiate a settlement at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Russia had previously secured great advantages in southeastern Europe when it made peace by ratifying the Treaty of San Stefano. Bismarck and other European leaders, however, opposed the growth of Russian influence, and sought to protect the power of the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Berlin revised the Treaty of San Stefano, reducing the concessions offered to Russia. As a result, Russo-German relations suffered; the Russian Prince Gorchakov denounced Bismarck for compromising his nation's victory. The relationship between Russia and Germany was further weakened by the latter's protectionist policies.
In February 1888, during a Bulgarian crisis, Bismarck addressed the Reichstag on the dangers of a European war. For the first time he dwelt upon the imminent possibility that Germany would be forced to fight on two fronts and he spoke of the peace at the final years of his tenure.
Bismarck's astute, cautious, and pragmatic foreign policies allowed Germany to retain peacefully the powerful position into which he had brought it; maintaining amiable diplomacy with almost all European nations. France, the main exception, was devastated by Bismarck's wars and his harsh subsequent policies towards it and became one of Germany's most bitter enemies in Europe.
During most of his nearly thirty year-long tenure, Bismarck held undisputed control over the government's policies. Bismarck proved himself as one of the most capable European statesmen of the nineteenth century by his clever statesmanship and proved himself as the "Iron Chancellor".
Though he was forced to resign from his office over disputes on domestic policies with Emperor William II, Bismarck left a lasting legacy in Europe and around the world. The German Nation and the Germans around the world remebered him by the creation of numerous statues and memorials around the German cities, towns, and countryside including the famous Bismarck Memorial in Berlin, Bismarck Sea and Bismarck Archipelago in the vicinity of then German colony in New Guinea as well as the City of Bismarck in the US State of North Dakota.
German Memories - Franco-Prussian War and Otto Von Bismarck's Diplomacy
Prussia's victory over Austria increased tensions with France. The French Emperor, Napoleon III, feared that a powerful Prussia would upset the balance of power in Europe. Bismarck, at the same time, sought war with France; he believed that if the German states perceived France as the aggressor, they would unite behind the King of Prussia.
A suitable premise for war arose in 1870, when the German Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was offered the Spanish throne, which had been vacant since a revolution in 1868. The French not only blocked the candidacy, but also demanded assurances that no member of the House of Hohenzollern become King of Spain.
Bismarck then published the Ems Dispatch, a carefully edited version of a conversation between King Wilhelm and the French ambassador to Prussia. The publication was intended to provoke France into declaring war on Prussia. The Ems Dispatch had the desired effect. France mobilized and declared war, but was seen as the aggressor; as a result, German states, swept up by nationalism and patriotic zeal, rallied to Prussia's side and provided troops.
The Franco-Prussian War in 1870 was a great success for Prussia. The German army, commanded by Moltke, won victory after victory. The French were defeated in every battle. The remainder of the war featured very careful German operations and massive confusion on the part of the French.
At the end, France was forced to pay a large indemnity and surrender Alsace and part of Lorraine. Though Bismarck opposed the annexation, arguing it would be the "Achilles' Heel" of the new empire, Moltke and his generals insisted that it was needed to keep France in a defensive position. He broke France's supremacy over continental Europe after the Franco-Prussian war.
He carefully built the external security of the new German Nation upon his skillful diplomacy, which isolated France internationally and created a vast and complex system of alliances for mutual military support with most of Europe's nations.
In the role of an 'honest broker', Bismarck was also successful in maintaining peace and stability in Europe by settling French political conflicts through negotiations. Essentially a cautious politician, Bismarck never pursued an imperialistic course in Europe. In Africa however, Bismarck followed for some time a policy of imperial conquest, in a manner similar to the other European powers.
His most important tool in politics was his talent in the successful planning of complex international developments.
Bismarck decided to act immediately to secure the unification of Germany after his victory over France. He opened negotiations with representatives of southern German states, offering special concessions if they would agree to unification. The negotiations were successful; King Wilhelm was crowned "German Emperor" on 18 January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors in the Chateau de Versailles for the further humiliation of France.
A suitable premise for war arose in 1870, when the German Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was offered the Spanish throne, which had been vacant since a revolution in 1868. The French not only blocked the candidacy, but also demanded assurances that no member of the House of Hohenzollern become King of Spain.
Bismarck then published the Ems Dispatch, a carefully edited version of a conversation between King Wilhelm and the French ambassador to Prussia. The publication was intended to provoke France into declaring war on Prussia. The Ems Dispatch had the desired effect. France mobilized and declared war, but was seen as the aggressor; as a result, German states, swept up by nationalism and patriotic zeal, rallied to Prussia's side and provided troops.
The Franco-Prussian War in 1870 was a great success for Prussia. The German army, commanded by Moltke, won victory after victory. The French were defeated in every battle. The remainder of the war featured very careful German operations and massive confusion on the part of the French.
At the end, France was forced to pay a large indemnity and surrender Alsace and part of Lorraine. Though Bismarck opposed the annexation, arguing it would be the "Achilles' Heel" of the new empire, Moltke and his generals insisted that it was needed to keep France in a defensive position. He broke France's supremacy over continental Europe after the Franco-Prussian war.
He carefully built the external security of the new German Nation upon his skillful diplomacy, which isolated France internationally and created a vast and complex system of alliances for mutual military support with most of Europe's nations.
In the role of an 'honest broker', Bismarck was also successful in maintaining peace and stability in Europe by settling French political conflicts through negotiations. Essentially a cautious politician, Bismarck never pursued an imperialistic course in Europe. In Africa however, Bismarck followed for some time a policy of imperial conquest, in a manner similar to the other European powers.
His most important tool in politics was his talent in the successful planning of complex international developments.
Bismarck decided to act immediately to secure the unification of Germany after his victory over France. He opened negotiations with representatives of southern German states, offering special concessions if they would agree to unification. The negotiations were successful; King Wilhelm was crowned "German Emperor" on 18 January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors in the Chateau de Versailles for the further humiliation of France.
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German university students donate a boat and engine to an affected fisherman.
Germans university students with Dietmar Doering (centre) at Marawila beach.
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